Omeg 3 and 6 in Grass Fed Beef

A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef

Cynthia A Daley

^oneHigher of Agriculture, California State University, Chico, CA, USA

Amber Abbott

¹College of Agriculture, California Country Academy, Chico, CA, United states of america

Patrick S Doyle

^oneCollege of Agriculture, California Land University, Chico, CA, United states of america

Glenn A Nader

ⁱⁱAcademy of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Stephanie Larson

²University of California Cooperative Extension Service, Davis, CA, USA

Received 2009 Jul 29; Accepted 2010 Mar 10.

Abstract

Growing consumer interest in grass-fed beef products has raised a number of questions with regard to the perceived differences in nutritional quality between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle. Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-based diets can significantly improve the fat acid (FA) composition and antioxidant content of beefiness, albeit with variable impacts on overall palatability. Grass-based diets have been shown to enhance total conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) (C18:2) isomers, trans vaccenic acid (TVA) (C18:1 t11), a forerunner to CLA, and omega-3 (northward-iii) FAs on a g/g fat basis. While the overall concentration of total SFAs is not different between feeding regimens, grass-finished beef tends toward a college proportion of cholesterol neutral stearic FA (C18:0), and less cholesterol-elevating SFAs such every bit myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) FAs. Several studies advise that grass-based diets drag precursors for Vitamin A and E, as well as cancer fighting antioxidants such every bit glutathione (GT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activeness as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Fat conscious consumers will too adopt the overall lower fatty content of a grass-fed beefiness product. However, consumers should exist aware that the differences in FA content volition likewise give grass-fed beefiness a singled-out grass flavor and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. In addition, the fatty from grass-finished beef may have a xanthous appearance from the elevated carotenoid content (precursor to Vitamin A). Information technology is also noted that grain-fed beef consumers may reach similar intakes of both n-three and CLA through the consumption of college fatty grain-fed portions.

Review Contents

1. Introduction

2. Fatty acid profile in grass-fed beef

3. Impact of grass-finishing on omega-3 fatty acids

4. Bear on of grass-finishing on conjugated linoleic acrid (CLA) and trans-vaccenic acid (TVA)

five. Bear upon of grass-finishing on β-carotenes/carotenoids

6. Impact of grass-finishing on α-tocopherol

7. Impact of grass-finishing on GT & SOD activity

8. Impact of grass-finishing on flavor and palatability

9. Determination

10. References

Introduction

In that location is considerable support amidst the nutritional communities for the diet-heart (lipid) hypothesis, the idea that an imbalance of dietary cholesterol and fats are the primary cause of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular illness (CVD) [i]. Wellness professionals world-wide recommend a reduction in the overall consumption of SFAs, trans-fat acids (TAs) and cholesterol, while emphasizing the need to increase intake of n-3 polyunsaturated fats [1,2]. Such broad sweeping nutritional recommendations with regard to fatty consumption are largely due to epidemiologic studies showing potent positive correlations between intake of SFA and the incidence of CVD, a condition believed to result from the concomitant rising in serum low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol as SFA intake increases [three,4]. For example, it is generally accepted that for every 1% increase in energy from SFA, LDL cholesterol levels reportedly increase past 1.3 to i.7 mg/dL (0.034 to 0.044 mmol/L) [5-seven].

Wide promotion of this correlative data spurred an anti-SFA campaign that reduced consumption of dietary fats, including most animal proteins such equally meat, dairy products and eggs over the last 3 decades [8], indicted on their relatively loftier SFA and cholesterol content. Nevertheless, more contempo lipid research would advise that not all SFAs accept the same bear upon on serum cholesterol. For case, lauric acid (C12:0) and myristic acid (C14:0), take a greater total cholesterol raising issue than palmitic acid (C16:0), whereas stearic acid (C18:0) has a neutral effect on the concentration of total serum cholesterol, including no apparent impact on either LDL or HDL. Lauric acid increases full serum cholesterol, although it likewise decreases the ratio of total cholesterol:HDL because of a preferential increase in HDL cholesterol [five,7,nine]. Thus, the private fatty acid profiles tend to be more instructive than wide lipid classifications with respect to subsequent impacts on serum cholesterol, and should therefore exist considered when making dietary recommendations for the prevention of CVD.

Clearly the lipid hypothesis has had broad sweeping impacts; not only on the mode nosotros eat, just also on the way nutrient is produced on-farm. Indeed, changes in fauna breeding and genetics accept resulted in an overall leaner beef product[10]. Preliminary examination of diets containing today'south leaner beefiness has shown a reduction in serum cholesterol, provided that beef consumption is limited to a iii ounce portion devoid of all external fat [11]. O'Dea'southward work was the first of several studies to show today's leaner beef products tin can reduce plasma LDL concentrations in both normal and hyper-cholesterolemic subjects, theoretically reducing take a chance of CVD [12-15].

Beyond changes in genetics, some producers have also altered their feeding practices whereby reducing or eliminating grain from the ruminant diet, producing a product referred to as "grass-fed" or "grass-finished". Historically, most of the beef produced until the 1940's was from cattle finished on grass. During the 1950's, considerable research was done to improve the efficiency of beef production, giving birth to the feedlot industry where high free energy grains are fed to cattle as ways to subtract days on feed and meliorate marbling (intramuscular fat: IMF). In addition, U.S. consumers accept grown accustomed to the taste of grain-fed beefiness, generally preferring the flavor and overall palatability afforded past the higher energy grain ration[xvi]. However, changes in consumer demand, coupled with new research on the effect of feed on nutrient content, accept a number of producers returning to the pastoral arroyo to beef production despite the inherent inefficiencies.

Research spanning three decades suggests that grass-simply diets can significantly change the fat acid composition and improve the overall antioxidant content of beef. Information technology is the intent of this review, to synthesize and summarize the information currently available to substantiate an enhanced nutrient claim for grass-fed beef products as well every bit to hash out the furnishings these specific nutrients accept on man health.

Review of fatty acrid profiles in grass-fed beef

Red meat, regardless of feeding regimen, is nutrient dumbo and regarded as an important source of essential amino acids, vitamins A, B₆, B₁₂, D, Due east, and minerals, including iron, zinc and selenium [17,18]. Along with these of import nutrients, meat consumers too ingest a number of fats which are an important source of energy and facilitate the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins including A, D, E and K. According to the ADA, animal fats contribute approximately 60% of the SFA in the American diet, about of which are palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0). Stearic acrid has been shown to take no cyberspace impact on serum cholesterol concentrations in humans[17,19]. In add-on, 30% of the FA content in conventionally produced beef is composed of oleic acid (C18:ane) [twenty], a monounsaturated FA (MUFA) that elicits a cholesterol-lowering event among other healthful attributes including a reduced risk of stroke and a significant decrease in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure in susceptible populations [21].

Be that as it may, changes in finishing diets of conventional cattle can alter the lipid profile in such a style as to improve upon this nutritional parcel. Although there are genetic, age related and gender differences among the various meat producing species with respect to lipid profiles and ratios, the effect of animal nutrition is quite significant [22]. Regardless of the genetic makeup, gender, historic period, species or geographic location, direct contrasts between grass and grain rations consistently demonstrate significant differences in the overall fatty acid profile and antioxidant content found in the lipid depots and trunk tissues [22-24].

Table 1 summarizes the saturated fatty acid assay for a number of studies whose objectives were to contrast the lipid profiles of cattle fed either a grain or grass diets [25-31]. This table is limited to those studies utilizing the longissimus dorsi (loin eye), thereby standardizing the contrasts to like cuts inside the carcass and limits the comparisons to cattle between 20 and xxx months of age. Unfortunately, non all studies report data in similar units of measure (i.e., g/grand of fatty acrid), so direct comparisons between studies are non possible.

Table 1

Comparing of mean saturated fatty acid composition (expressed as mg/thousand of fatty acrid or every bit a % of total lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acrid

Author, publication twelvemonth, breed, treatment	C12:0 lauric	C14:0 myristic	C16:0 palmitic	C18:0 stearic	C20:0 arachidic	Total SFA (units equally specified)	Total lipid (units equally specified)
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	g/100 g lipid
Grass	0.05	1.24*	18.42*	17.54*	0.25*	38.76	ix.76* mg/yard muscle
Grain	0.06	i.84*	xx.79*	14.96*	0.19*	39.27	thirteen.03* mg/yard musculus
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	thou/100 g lipid
Grass	0.05	2.84*	26.9	17.0*	0.13*	48.8*	2.viii* % of muscle
Grain	0.07	3.45*	26.three	xiii.2*	0.08*	45.i*	4.4* % of muscle
Garcia et al., 2008, Angus Ten-bred steers	% of total FA
Grass	na	2.19	23.1	13.1*	na	38.four*	2.86* %IMF
Grain	na	2.44	22.1	10.8*	na	35.three*	3.85* %International monetary fund
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 one thousand muscle tissue
Grass	na	56.nine*	508*	272.8	na	900*	two.12%* % of musculus
Grain	na	103.7*	899*	463.3	na	1568*	three.61%* % of muscle
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total intramuscular fat reported equally LSM
Grass	0.04	1.82	22.56*	17.64*	na	43.91	one.51* % of muscle
Grain	0.05	one.96	24.26*	sixteen.80*	na	44.49	2.61* % of muscle
Descalzo, et al., 2005 Crossbred Steers	% of total FA
Grass	na	2.ii	22.0	19.1	na	42.viii	two.7* %IMF
Grain	na	2.0	25.0	18.ii	na	45.v	4.7* %IMF
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fat acrid within intramuscular fatty
Grass	na	ane.64*	21.61*	17.74*	na	49.08	i.68* % of muscle
Grain	na	ii.17*	24.26*	15.77*	na	47.62	3.18* % of muscle

*Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported inside each respective written report. "na" indicates that the value was non reported in the original study.

Table i reports that grass finished cattle are typically lower in full fatty as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Interestingly, there is no consistent difference in total SFA content betwixt these two feeding regimens. Those SFA's considered to be more than detrimental to serum cholesterol levels, i.e., myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0), were higher in grain-fed beefiness as compared to grass-fed contemporaries in 60% of the studies reviewed. Grass finished meat contains elevated concentrations of stearic acrid (C18:0), the simply saturated fatty acid with a internet neutral touch on serum cholesterol. Thus, grass finished beef tends to produce a more favorable SFA limerick although little is known of how grass-finished beefiness would ultimately impact serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic patients as compared to a grain-fed beefiness.

Like SFA intake, dietary cholesterol consumption has also go an important issue to consumers. Interestingly, beef's cholesterol content is similar to other meats (beef 73; pork 79; lamb 85; chicken 76; and turkey 83 mg/100 g) [32], and can therefore be used interchangeably with white meats to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hyper-cholesterolemic individuals[xi,33]. Studies accept shown that brood, nutrition and sex do not touch the cholesterol concentration of bovine skeletal musculus, rather cholesterol content is highly correlated to Imf concentrations[34]. Every bit International monetary fund levels rise, so goes cholesterol concentrations per gram of tissue [35]. Because pasture raised beef is lower in overall fatty [24-27,30], particularly with respect to marbling or Imf [26,36], it would seem to follow that grass-finished beef would be lower in overall cholesterol content although the information is very limited. Garcia et al (2008) study xl.3 and 45.eight grams of cholesterol/100 grams of tissue in pastured and grain-fed steers, respectively (P < 0.001) [24].

Interestingly, grain-fed beef consistently produces higher concentrations of MUFAs as compared to grass-fed beefiness, which include FAs such as oleic acid (C18:ane cis-9), the master MUFA in beef. A number of epidemiological studies comparing disease rates in dissimilar countries accept suggested an inverse association between MUFA intake and bloodshed rates to CVD [3,21]. Withal, grass-fed beef provides a higher concentration of TVA (C18:1 t11), an important MUFA for de novo synthesis of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA: C18:2 c-9, t-11), a strong anti-carcinogen that is synthesized inside the body tissues [37]. Specific data relative to the wellness benefits of CLA and its biochemistry volition be detailed later.

The important polyunsaturated fat acids (PUFAs) in conventional beef are linoleic acid (C18:2), blastoff-linolenic acid (C18:3), described every bit the essential FAs, and the long-chain fat acids including arachidonic acid (C20:four), eicosapentaenoic acrid (C20:5), docosanpetaenoic acrid (C22:five) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6) [38]. The significance of diet on fatty acid limerick is clearly demonstrated when profiles are examined by omega half dozen (n-vi) and omega 3 (n-3) families. Table 2 shows no meaning change to the overall concentration of n-half-dozen FAs betwixt feeding regimens, although grass-fed beef consistently shows a higher concentrations of due north-three FAs as compared to grain-fed contemporaries, creating a more than favorable n-6:n-iii ratio. There are a number of studies that report positive effects of improved northward-3 intake on CVD and other wellness related issues discussed in more detail in the side by side department.

Table 2

Comparing of mean polyunsatured fatty acrid limerick (expressed as mg/g of fatty acid or as a % of full lipid) between grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	Fatty Acid

Author, publication year, breed, handling	C18:ane t11 Vaccenic Acrid	C18:2 n-vi Linoleic	Total CLA	C18:3 n-iii Linolenic	C20:5n-3 EPA	C22:5n-3 DPA	C22:6n-3 DHA	Total PUFA	Total MUFA	Total n-6	Total n-3	n-half-dozen/n-3 ratio
Alfaia, et al., 2009, Crossbred steers	g/100 g lipid
Grass	one.35	12.55	five.14*	5.53*	2.13*	2.56*	0.twenty*	28.99*	24.69*	17.97*	10.41*	one.77*
Grain	0.92	eleven.95	2.65*	0.48*	0.47*	0.91*	0.11*	nineteen.06*	34.99*	17.08	1.97*	viii.99*
Leheska, et al., 2008, Mixed cattle	g/100 g lipid
Grass	2.95*	2.01	0.85*	0.71*	0.31	0.24*	na	3.41	42.five*	2.30	1.07*	2.78*
Grain	0.51*	2.38	0.48*	0.13*	0.19	0.06*	na	ii.77	46.ii*	ii.58	0.19*	13.vi*
Garcia, et al., 2008, Angus steers	% of full FAs
Grass	3.22*	3.41	0.72*	1.30*	0.52*	0.70*	0.43*	vii.95	37.seven*	5.00*	2.95*	1.72*
Grain	2.25*	three.93	0.58*	0.74*	0.12*	0.30*	0.14*	ix.31	twoscore.8*	8.05*	0.86*	10.38*
Ponnampalam, et al., 2006, Angus steers	mg/100 g muscle tissue
Grass	na	108.8*	14.3	32.4*	24.5*	36.5*	4.2	na	930*	191.6	97.6*	ane.96*
Grain	na	167.4*	16.one	14.9*	13.1*	31.6*	iii.seven	na	1729*	253.8	63.three*	3.57*
Nuernberg, et al., 2005, Simmental bulls	% of total fat acids
Grass	na	six.56	0.87*	ii.22*	0.94*	i.32*	0.17*	fourteen.29*	56.09	ix.eighty	four.seventy*	2.04*
Grain	na	5.22	0.72*	0.46*	0.08*	0.29*	0.05*	9.07*	55.51	seven.73	0.90*	8.34*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crossbred steers	% of total FAs
Grass	4.ii*	5.iv	na	1.4*	tr	0.6	tr	10.31*	34.17*	7.iv	2.0	three.72*
Grain	2.8*	4.7	na	0.7*	tr	0.4	tr	vii.29*	37.83*	6.3	1.i	five.73*
Realini, et al., 2004, Hereford steers	% fat acid within intramuscular fatty
Grass	na	3.29*	0.53*	i.34*	0.69*	i.04*	0.09	9.96*	40.96*	na	na	one.44*
Grain	na	2.84*	0.25*	0.35*	0.thirty*	0.56*	0.09	half dozen.02*	46.36*	na	na	iii.00*

* Indicates a significant difference (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens within each corresponding written report reported. "na" indicates that the value was not reported in the original report. "tr" indicates trace amounts detected.

Review of Omega-3: Omega-half-dozen fatty acid content in grass-fed beef

There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human diet: α-linolenic acid (αLA), an omega-3 fatty acid; and linoleic acid (LA), an omega-six fatty acid. The human trunk cannot synthesize essential fatty acids, yet they are disquisitional to human wellness; for this reason, EFAs must be obtained from nutrient. Both αLA and LA are polyunsaturated and serve every bit precursors of other important compounds. For instance, αLA is the precursor for the omega-iii pathway. As well, LA is the parent fat acid in the omega-half-dozen pathway. Omega-three (northward-iii) and omega-6 (n-6) fat acids are two separate distinct families, yet they are synthesized past some of the aforementioned enzymes; specifically, delta-5-desaturase and delta-6-desaturase. Excess of one family unit of FAs can interfere with the metabolism of the other, reducing its incorporation into tissue lipids and altering their overall biological effects [39]. Effigy 1 depicts a schematic of n-6 and north-three metabolism and elongation within the body [40].

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Linoleic (C18:2n-six) and α-Linolenic (C18:3n-three) Acid metabolism and elongation. (Adapted from Simopoulos et al., 1991)

A good for you diet should consist of roughly 1 to 4 times more omega-6 fat acids than omega-3 fat acids. The typical American diet tends to contain eleven to thirty times more omega -6 fatty acids than omega -3, a phenomenon that has been hypothesized as a meaning gene in the rising rate of inflammatory disorders in the Usa[twoscore]. Tabular array two shows pregnant differences in n-6:north-iii ratios between grass-fed and grain-fed beef, with and overall average of 1.53 and 7.65 for grass-fed and grain-fed, respectively, for all studies reported in this review.

The major types of omega-3 fatty acids used by the body include: α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-three, αLA), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-three, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-three, DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-iii, DHA). Once eaten, the trunk converts αLA to EPA, DPA and DHA, albeit at low efficiency. Studies generally concur that whole body conversion of αLA to DHA is below 5% in humans, the majority of these long-chain FAs are consumed in the diet [41].

The omega-three fat acids were first discovered in the early 1970'southward when Danish physicians observed that Greenland Eskimos had an exceptionally low incidence of middle disease and arthritis despite the fact that they consumed a nutrition high in fat. These early studies established fish equally a rich source of n-3 fatty acids. More than recent research has established that EPA and DHA play a crucial office in the prevention of atherosclerosis, centre attack, depression and cancer [40,42]. In improver, omega-3 consumption reduced the inflammation caused past rheumatoid arthritis [43,44].

The human being encephalon has a high requirement for DHA; low DHA levels have been linked to low encephalon serotonin levels, which are connected to an increased trend for depression and suicide. Several studies have established a correlation betwixt low levels of omega -3 fatty acids and low. Loftier consumption of omega-iii FAs is typically associated with a lower incidence of depression, a decreased prevalence of historic period-related memory loss and a lower risk of developing Alzheimer'southward disease [45-51].

The National Institutes of Health has published recommended daily intakes of FAs; specific recommendations include 650 mg of EPA and DHA, ii.22 chiliad/day of αLA and 4.44 g/day of LA. Yet, the Institute of Medicine has recommended DRI (dietary reference intake) for LA (omega-vi) at 12 to 17 thou and αLA (omega-3) at i.1 to one.6 g for adult women and men, respectively. Although seafood is the major dietary source of north-three fatty acids, a recent fatty acid intake survey indicated that ruby meat also serves as a significant source of n-three fatty acids for some populations [52].

Sinclair and co-workers were the showtime to show that beef consumption increased serum concentrations of a number of n-three fat acids including, EPA, DPA and DHA in humans [xl]. Also, there are a number of studies that have been conducted with livestock which report like findings, i.e., animals that consume rations high in precursor lipids produce a meat production higher in the essential fat acids [53,54]. For instance, cattle fed primarily grass significantly increased the omega-3 content of the meat and too produced a more favorable omega-half dozen to omega-3 ratio than grain-fed beef [46,55-57].

Table 2 shows the event of ration on polyunsaturated fatty acid limerick from a number of recent studies that contrast grass-based rations to conventional grain feeding regimens [24-28,30,31]. Grass-based diets resulted in significantly college levels of omega-3 inside the lipid fraction of the meat, while omega-half dozen levels were left unchanged. In fact, as the concentration of grain is increased in the grass-based diet, the concentration of n-3 FAs decreases in a linear fashion. Grass-finished beef consistently produces a college concentration of n-3 FAs (without effecting n-6 FA content), resulting in a more than favorable n-half dozen:n-3 ratio.

The amount of full lipid (fat) constitute in a serving of meat is highly dependent upon the feeding regimen equally demonstrated in Tables i and two. Fatty will also vary by cut, as not all locations of the carcass will deposit fatty to the same degree. Genetics also play a role in lipid metabolism creating meaning breed effects. Fifty-fifty and then, the effect of feeding regimen is a very powerful determinant of fatty acid composition.

Review of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans vaccenic acrid (TVA) in grass-fed beefiness

Conjugated linoleic acids make up a grouping of polyunsaturated FAs institute in meat and milk from ruminant animals and exist as a general mixture of conjugated isomers of LA. Of the many isomers identified, the cis-ix, trans-11 CLA isomer (also referred to equally rumenic acid or RA) accounts for up to 80-ninety% of the total CLA in ruminant products [58]. Naturally occurring CLAs originate from two sources: bacterial isomerization and/or biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the rumen and the desaturation of trans-fatty acids in the adipose tissue and mammary gland [59,lx].

Microbial biohydrogenation of LA and αLA by an anaerobic rumen bacterium Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens is highly dependent on rumen pH [61]. Grain consumption decreases rumen pH, reducing B. fibrisolven action, conversely grass-based diets provide for a more than favorable rumen environment for subsequent bacterial synthesis [62]. Rumen pH may assist to explain the apparent differences in CLA content betwixt grain and grass-finished meat products (see Table 2). De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:one TVA has been documented in rodents, dairy cows and humans. Studies suggest a linear increase in CLA synthesis every bit the TVA content of the diet increased in human subjects [63]. The charge per unit of conversion of TVA to CLA has been estimated to range from 5 to 12% in rodents to xix to thirty% in humans[64]. True dietary intake of CLA should therefore consider native 9c11t-C18:ii (actual CLA) as well equally the 11t-C18:1 (potential CLA) content of foods [65,66]. Figure 2 portrays de novo synthesis pathways of CLA from TVA [37].

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De novo synthesis of CLA from 11t-C18:ane vaccenic acid. (Adapted from Bauman et al., 1999)

Natural augmentation of CLA c9txi and TVA inside the lipid fraction of beef products can be accomplished through diets rich in grass and lush green forages. While precursors can be found in both grains and lush light-green forages, grass-fed ruminant species have been shown to produce two to iii times more CLA than ruminants fed in confinement on high grain diets, largely due to a more favorable rumen pH [34,56,57,67] (meet Table 2).

The touch on of feeding practices becomes even more evident in low-cal of recent reports from Canada which suggests a shift in the predominate trans C18:1 isomer in grain-fed beef. Dugan et al (2007) reported that the major trans isomer in beef produced from a 73% barley grain diet is 10t-18:ane (2.13% of total lipid) rather than 11t-18:one (TVA) (0.77% of total lipid), a finding that is not particularly favorable considering the data that would back up a negative impact of 10t-18:1 on LDL cholesterol and CVD [68,69].

Over the by ii decades numerous studies have shown significant wellness benefits attributable to the actions of CLA, as demonstrated by experimental animal models, including actions to reduce carcinogenesis, atherosclerosis, and onset of diabetes [lxx-72]. Conjugated linoleic acid has likewise been reported to modulate body composition by reducing the accumulation of adipose tissue in a variety of species including mice, rats, pigs, and now humans [73-76]. These changes in body composition occur at ultra high doses of CLA, dosages that can only be attained through synthetic supplementation that may also produce ill side-furnishings, such equally gastrointestinal upset, agin changes to glucose/insulin metabolism and compromised liver role [77-81]. A number of excellent reviews on CLA and man health tin be establish in the literature [61,82-84].

Optimal dietary intake remains to be established for CLA. It has been hypothesized that 95 mg CLA/solar day is plenty to evidence positive effects in the reduction of chest cancer in women utilizing epidemiological data linking increased milk consumption with reduced breast cancer[85]. Ha et al. (1989) published a much more than conservative estimate stating that three g/day CLA is required to promote human health benefits[86]. Ritzenthaler et al. (2001) estimated CLA intakes of 620 mg/solar day for men and 441 mg/day for women are necessary for cancer prevention[87]. Apparently, all these values stand for crude estimates and are mainly based on extrapolated fauna information. What is clear is that we as a population do not consume plenty CLA in our diets to have a significant affect on cancer prevention or suppression. Reports signal that Americans consume between 150 to 200 mg/day, Germans consumer slightly more than betwixt 300 to 400 mg/day[87], and the Australians seem to exist closer to the optimum concentration at 500 to 1000 mg/twenty-four hour period according to Parodi (1994) [88].

Review of pro-Vitamin A/β-carotene in grass-fed meat

Carotenoids are a family of compounds that are synthesized by higher plants equally natural plant pigments. Xanthophylls, carotene and lycopene are responsible for yellowish, orangish and cerise coloring, respectively. Ruminants on loftier forage rations pass a portion of the ingested carotenoids into the milk and body fat in a mode that has all the same to exist fully elucidated. Cattle produced under extensive grass-based production systems mostly have carcass fat which is more than yellow than their concentrate-fed counterparts acquired by carotenoids from the lush light-green forages. Although xanthous carcass fat is negatively regarded in many countries around the world, it is besides associated with a healthier fatty acid contour and a higher antioxidant content [89].

Institute species, harvest methods, and season, all have significant impacts on the carotenoid content of forage. In the procedure of making silage, haylage or hay, as much as 80% of the carotenoid content is destroyed [90]. Further, significant seasonal shifts occur in carotenoid content owing to the seasonal nature of establish growth.

Carotenes (mainly β-carotene) are precursors of retinol (Vitamin A), a disquisitional fat-soluble vitamin that is important for normal vision, bone growth, reproduction, cell sectionalization, and cell differentiation [91]. Specifically, information technology is responsible for maintaining the surface lining of the optics and likewise the lining of the respiratory, urinary, and abdominal tracts. The overall integrity of skin and mucous membranes is maintained by vitamin A, creating a barrier to bacterial and viral infection [fifteen,92]. In addition, vitamin A is involved in the regulation of immune function past supporting the product and office of white claret cells [12,13].

The electric current recommended intake of vitamin A is 3,000 to 5,000 IU for men and 2,300 to 4,000 IU for women [93], respectively, which is equivalent to 900 to 1500 μg (micrograms) (Note: DRI as reported past the Institute of Medicine for not-pregnant/non-lactating adult females is 700 μg/day and males is 900 μg/day or ii,300 - 3,000 I U (assuming conversion of 3.33 IU/μg). While there is no RDA (Required Daily Allowance) for β-carotene or other pro-vitamin A carotenoids, the Institute of Medicine suggests consuming iii mg of β-carotene daily to maintain plasma β-carotene in the range associated with normal office and a lowered risk of chronic diseases (NIH: Office of Dietary Supplements).

The effects of grass feeding on beta-carotene content of beef was described by Descalzo et al. (2005) who found pasture-fed steers incorporated significantly higher amounts of beta-carotene into muscle tissues as compared to grain-fed animals [94]. Concentrations were 0.45 μg/grand and 0.06 μg/g for beef from pasture and grain-fed cattle respectively, demonstrating a 7 fold increase in β-carotene levels for grass-fed beef over the grain-fed contemporaries. Like data has been reported previously, presumably due to the high β-carotene content of fresh grasses as compared to cereal grains[38,55,95-97]. (encounter Table 3)

Table 3

Comparing of mean β-carotene vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	β-carotene

Author, year, animal class	Grass-fed (ug/g tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	0.74*	0.17*
Descalzo et al., 2005 Crossbred steers	0.45*	0.06*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	0.xvi*	0.01*

* Indicates a significant difference (at to the lowest degree P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective report.

Review of Vitamin East/α-tocopherol in grass-fed beefiness

Vitamin E is also a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in viii dissimilar isoforms with powerful antioxidant activity, the most active existence α-tocopherol [98]. Numerous studies have shown that cattle finished on pasture produce higher levels of α-tocopherol in the final meat product than cattle fed loftier concentrate diets[23,28,94,97,99-101] (see Tabular array iv).

Tabular array 4

Comparing of hateful α-tocopherol vitamin content in fresh beef from grass-fed and grain-fed cattle.

	α-tocopherol

Author, year, animal grade	Grass-fed (ug/g tissue)	Grain-fed (ug/g tissue)
De la Fuente et al., 2009, Mixed cattle	iv.07*	0.75*
Descalzo, et al., 2008, Crossbred steers	3.08*	1.50*
Insani et al., 2007, Crossbred steers	2.1*	0.8*
Descalzo, et al., 2005, Crosbred steers	4.vi*	ii.2*
Realini et al., 2004, Hereford steers	3.91*	two.92*
Yang et al., 2002, Crossbred steers	4.v*	1.eight*

* Indicates a meaning divergence (at least P < 0.05) between feeding regimens was reported within each respective study.

Antioxidants such as vitamin E protect cells against the furnishings of free radicals. Free radicals are potentially dissentious by-products of metabolism that may contribute to the evolution of chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular illness.

Preliminary research shows vitamin Eastward supplementation may help prevent or delay coronary middle disease [102-105]. Vitamin E may also block the formation of nitrosamines, which are carcinogens formed in the stomach from nitrates consumed in the diet. Information technology may also protect confronting the evolution of cancers by enhancing immune office [106]. In addition to the cancer fighting furnishings, at that place are some observational studies that found lens clarity (a diagnostic tool for cataracts) was ameliorate in patients who regularly used vitamin E [107,108]. The electric current recommended intake of vitamin Due east is 22 IU (natural source) or 33 IU (synthetic source) for men and women [93,109], respectively, which is equivalent to fifteen milligrams past weight.

The concentration of natural α-tocopherol (vitamin E) found in grain-fed beef ranged between 0.75 to 2.92 μg/1000 of muscle whereas pasture-fed beefiness ranges from 2.one to 7.73 μg/thousand of tissue depending on the type of forage made bachelor to the animals (Table 4). Grass finishing increases α-tocopherol levels three-fold over grain-fed beef and places grass-fed beef well within range of the muscle α-tocopherol levels needed to extend the shelf-life of retail beef (iii to 4 μg α-tocopherol/gram tissue) [110]. Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) acts mail-mortem to filibuster oxidative deterioration of the meat; a process past which myoglobin is converted into brown metmyoglobin, producing a darkened, brown appearance to the meat. In a study where grass-fed and grain-fed beefiness were directly compared, the bright red color associated with oxymyoglobin was retained longer in the retail brandish in the grass-fed grouping, even idea the grass-fed meat contains a higher concentration of more oxidizable north-3 PUFA. The authors ended that the antioxidants in grass probably caused higher tissue levels of vitamin East in grazed animals with benefits of lower lipid oxidation and better colour memory despite the greater potential for lipid oxidation[111].

Review of antioxidant enzyme content in grass-fed beef

Glutathione (GT), is a relatively new poly peptide identified in foods. It is a tripeptide composed of cysteine, glutamic acrid and glycine and functions equally an antioxidant primarily every bit a component of the enzyme system containing GT oxidase and reductase. Within the cell, GT has the capability of quenching free radicals (like hydrogen peroxide), thus protecting the prison cell from oxidized lipids or proteins and prevent harm to DNA. GT and its associated enzymes are found in nearly all institute and brute tissue and is readily absorbed in the small-scale intestine[112].

Although our knowledge of GT content in foods is still somewhat limited, dairy products, eggs, apples, beans, and rice contain very footling GT (< iii.3 mg/100 thousand). In dissimilarity, fresh vegetables (e.g., asparagus 28.three mg/100 g) and freshly cooked meats, such as ham and beef (23.iii mg/100 one thousand and 17.5 mg/100 g, respectively), are loftier in GT [113].

Because GT compounds are elevated in lush green forages, grass-fed beef is particularly high in GT as compared to grain-fed contemporaries. Descalzo et al. (2007) reported a pregnant increase in GT molar concentrations in grass-fed beefiness [114]. In addition, grass-fed samples were likewise higher in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (True cat) activity than beef from grain-fed animals[115]. Superoxide dismutase and catalase are coupled enzymes that work together every bit powerful antioxidants, SOD scavenges superoxide anions by forming hydrogen peroxide and CAT and then decomposes the hydrogen peroxide to H₂O and O₂. Grass simply diets improve the oxidative enzyme concentration in beefiness, protecting the muscle lipids against oxidation likewise equally providing the beef consumer with an additional source of antioxidant compounds.

Issues related to flavor and palatability of grass-fed beef

Maintaining the more than favorable lipid profile in grass-fed beef requires a high percentage of lush fresh fodder or grass in the ration. The higher the concentration of fresh green forages, the higher the αLA precursor that will be bachelor for CLA and n-iii synthesis [53,54]. Fresh pasture forages have 10 to 12 times more C18:3 than cereal grains [116]. Dried or cured forages, such as hay, will take a slightly lower amount of forerunner for CLA and n-3 synthesis. Shifting diets to cereal grains volition cause a pregnant change in the FA profile and antioxidant content inside xxx days of transition [57].

Because grass-finishing alters the biochemistry of the beef, smell and flavor will also be affected. These attributes are directly linked to the chemical makeup of the final product. In a study comparing the flavor compounds between cooked grass-fed and grain-fed beef, the grass-fed beefiness independent college concentrations of diterpenoids, derivatives of chlorophyll call phyt-1-ene and phyt-ii-ene, that changed both the flavor and odor of the cooked product [117]. Others accept identified a "green" odor from cooked grass-fed meat associated with hexanals derived from oleic and αLA FAs. In contrast to the "dark-green" aroma, grain-fed beef was described as possessing a "soapy" aroma, presumably from the octanals formed from LA that is found in high concentration in grains [118]. Grass-fed beefiness consumers can expect a different season and odour to their steaks equally they cook on the grill. Likewise, because of the lower lipid content and high concentration of PUFAs, cooking time volition be reduced. For an exhaustive look at the effect of meat compounds on flavour, see Calkins and Hodgen (2007) [119].

With respect to palatability, grass-fed beef has historically been less well accustomed in markets where grain-fed products predominant. For example, in a study where British lambs fed grass and Spanish lambs fed milk and concentrates were assessed by British and Spanish sense of taste panels, both found the British lamb to accept a college odor and flavor intensity. However, the British panel preferred the flavor and overall eating quality of the grass-fed lamb, the Spanish console much preferred the Spanish fed lamb [120]. Too, the U.Southward. is well known for producing corn-fed beef, taste panels and consumers who are more familiar with the gustatory modality of corn-fed beef seem to prefer information technology equally well [16]. An individual commonly comes to adopt the foods they grew upwards eating, making consumer sensory panels more of an fine art than science [36]. Trained taste panels, i.e., persons specifically trained to evaluate sensory characteristics in beef, found grass-fed beef less palatable than grain-fed beef in flavor and tenderness [119,121].

Conclusion

Enquiry spanning three decades supports the argument that grass-fed beefiness (on a g/chiliad fatty basis), has a more desirable SFA lipid contour (more C18:0 cholesterol neutral SFA and less C14:0 & C16:0 cholesterol elevating SFAs) every bit compared to grain-fed beef. Grass-finished beef is also college in total CLA (C18:2) isomers, TVA (C18:1 t11) and n-iii FAs on a g/1000 fatty basis. This results in a better n-six:n-3 ratio that is preferred by the nutritional community. Grass-fed beef is besides higher in precursors for Vitamin A and East and cancer fighting antioxidants such equally GT and SOD action as compared to grain-fed contemporaries.

Grass-fed beef tends to be lower in overall fat content, an important consideration for those consumers interested in decreasing overall fatty consumption. Because of these differences in FA content, grass-fed beef also possesses a distinct grass season and unique cooking qualities that should be considered when making the transition from grain-fed beef. To maximize the favorable lipid profile and to guarantee the elevated antioxidant content, animals should be finished on 100% grass or pasture-based diets.

Grain-fed beef consumers may achieve similar intakes of both n-3 and CLA through consumption of higher fat portions with college overall palatability scores. A number of clinical studies take shown that today's lean beef, regardless of feeding strategy, can be used interchangeably with fish or skinless chicken to reduce serum cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic patients.

Abbreviations

c: cis; t: trans; FA: fatty acid; SFA: saturated fatty acid; PUFA: polyunsaturated fat acid; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acid; CLA: conjugated linoleic acrid; TVA: trans-vaccenic acrid; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA: docosapentaenoic acid; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; GT: glutathione; SOD: superoxide dismutase; CAT: catalase.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

CAD was responsible for the literature review, completed most of the primary writing, created the manuscript and worked through the submission process; AA conducted the literature search, organized the articles according to category, completed some of the primary writing and served as editor; SPD conducted a portion of the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript; GAN conducted a portion of the literature review and served every bit editor for the manuscript; SL conducted a portion o the literature review and served as editor for the manuscript. All authors read and canonical the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Grace Berryhill for her aid with the figures, tables and editorial contributions to this manuscript.

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